When was copper used in China?

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Bronze tiger inlaid with gold and silver, Han dynasty

Metallurgy in China has a long history, with the earliest metal objects in China dating back to around 3,000 BCE. The majority of early metal items found in China come from the North-Western Region (mainly Gansu and Qinghai, ''). China was the earliest civilization to use the blast furnace and produce cast iron.[1]

Copper

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Archaeological evidence indicates that the earliest metal objects in China were made in the late fourth millennium BCE. Copper was generally the earliest metal to be used by humanity, and was used in China since at least BCE.[2][3]

Early metal-using communities have been found at the Qijia and Siba sites in Gansu. The metal knives and axes recovered in Qijia apparently point to some interactions with Siberian and Central Asian cultures, in particular with the Seima-Turbino complex,[5] or the Afanasievo culture.[6] Archeological evidence points to plausible early contact between the Qijia culture and Central Asia.[5] Similar sites have been found in Xinjiang in the west and Shandong, Liaoning and Inner Mongolia in the east and north. The Central Plain sites associated with the Erlitou culture also contain early metalworks.[7]

Copper manufacturing, more complex than jade working, gradually appeared in the Yangshao period (' BCE). Jiangzhai is the only place where copper artifacts were found in the Banpo culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BCE. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan culture (') and copper slag at the Yuanwozhen site. This indicates that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by the later Yangshao period.[8]

The Qijia culture (c. ') of Qinghai, Gansu, and western Shaanxi produced copper and bronze utilitarian items and gold, copper, and bronze ornaments. The earliest metalworks in this region are found at a Majiayao site at Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu.[7] "Their dates range from to BCE. These metal objects represent the Majiayao ''' type of the Majiayao culture (c. ' BCE), Zongri '' Culture (c. ' BCE), Machang '' Type (c. ' BCE), Qijia '' Culture (c. ' BCE), and Siba '' Culture (c. ' BCE)."[9]

At Dengjiawan, in the Shijiahe site complex in Hubei, some pieces of copper were discovered; they are the earliest copper objects discovered in southern China.[10] The Linjia site ('''', Línjiā yízhǐ) has the earliest evidence for bronze in China, dating to c. BCE.[11]

Bronze

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Bronze knife found in Dongxiang, Gansu (dated ' BC), Majiayao culture Bronze spearhead with inscription, Zhou dynasty

Bronze technology was imported to China from the steppes.[12] The oldest bronze object found in China was a knife found at a Majiayao culture site in Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to ' BC. Further copper and bronze objects have been found at Machang-period sites in Gansu. Metallurgy spread to the middle and lower Yellow River region in the late 3rd millennium BC. Contacts between the Afanasievo culture and the Majiayao culture and the Qijia culture have been considered for the transmission of bronze technology.[16] From around BCE, cast bronze objects such as the socketed spear with single side hook were imported and adapted from the Seima-Turbino culture.[17]

The Erlitou culture (c. ' BCE), Shang dynasty (c. ' BCE) and Sanxingdui culture (c. ' BCE) of early China used bronze vessels for rituals (see Chinese ritual bronzes) as well as farming implements and weapons.[18] By BCE, excellent bronzes were being made in China in large quantities, partly as a display of status, and as many as 200 large pieces were buried with their owner for use in the afterlife, as in the Tomb of Fu Hao, a Shang queen.

In the tomb of the first Qin Emperor and multiple Warring States period tombs, extremely sharp swords and other weapons were found, coated with chromium oxide, which made the weapons rust resistant.[19][20][21] The layer of chromium oxide used on these swords was 10 to 15 micrometers and left them in pristine condition to this day. Chromium was first scientifically attested in the 18th century.[22]

The beginning of new breakthroughs in metallurgy occurred towards the Yangzi River's south in China's southeastern region in the Warring States period such as gilt-bronze swords.[23]

Section-mold casting

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There are two types of bronze smelting techniques in early China, namely the section mold process and the lost-wax process. The earliest bronze ware found in China is the bronze knife (F20: 18) unearthed at the Majiayao in Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to about BC.[24] This bronze knife uses the section mold process, which is spliced by two molds.

The section mold process is a commonly used bronze casting method in the Shang dynasty, that is, the mud is selected, and after selecting, filtration, showering, deposition and other procedures, the mud is cooled to a moderate hardness as a backup, and then the mud is made according to the shape of the vessel to be made. There are two types of molds, which is inner mold and outer mold. The inner mold is only the shape of the bronze ware, without decoration; the outer model should consider the division of the bronze ware after casting in the future, that is, the block during the production of the clay model, and also engrave the inscriptions and inscriptions of the bronze ware decoration on the clay model. After the clay mold are done, put it in a cool place to dry in the shade, and then put it into the furnace for roasting. After the mold are heated, they become pottery molds unearthed during modern archaeological discoveries. After the pottery mold is fired, do not rush out of the furnace. After the copper furnace has liquefied the required copper, the pottery mold that still has residual temperature is taken out and poured. In this way, the temperature difference between the copper liquid and the pottery mold is not large, and the pottery mold is not easy to burst. The quality of the finished product is relatively high. After the copper liquid is poured, remove the pottery molds and molds according to the blocks they were made. If they can't be removed, they can be broken with a hammer. The bronze will come out, and after grinding, it is the finished product.[25]

Lost-wax casting

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According to some scholars, lost-wax casting was used in China already during the Spring and Autumn period (770 ' 476 BCE), although this is often disputed.[26]

The lost-wax method is used in most parts of the world. As the name suggests, the lost-wax method is to use wax as a mold, and heat it to melt the wax mold and lose it, thereby casting bronze ware, making the model (the outer layer of the wax model is coated with mud), lost-wax (heating to make the wax flow out), pouring copper liquid to fill the cavity left by the wax model, etc. The development and spread of the lost-wax method in the West has never stopped, but the main bronze casting method in the Bronze Age in China is the section mold process. When the lost-wax method was introduced into China is also a topic of academic discussion. But there is no doubt that the lost-wax method already existed in China during the Spring and Autumn period. In , the Bronze Zun-Pan unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Leigudun, Suixian County, Hubei Province, used a mixed process of section mold method and lost-wax method.[27]

Iron

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A Chinese blast furnace, pouring out iron Iron sickle and plow, Han dynasty

Introduction

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The early Iron Age in China began before BCE, with the introduction of ironware, such as knives, swords, and arrowheads, from the west into Xinjiang, before it further diffused to Qinghai and Gansu.[28] In , two iron fragments were excavated at the Mogou site, in Gansu. They have been dated to the 14th century BCE, belonging to the period of Siwa culture. One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron.[29]

Cast iron

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Cast iron farm tools and weapons were widespread in China by the 5th century BC, employing workforces of over 200 men in iron smelters from the 3rd century onward. The earliest known blast furnaces are attributed to the Han dynasty in the 1st century AD.[30][31] These early furnaces had clay walls and used phosphorus-containing minerals as a flux.[32] Chinese blast furnaces ranged from around two to ten meters in height, depending on the region. The largest ones were found in modern Sichuan and Guangdong, while the 'dwarf" blast furnaces were found in Dabieshan. In construction, they are both around the same level of technological sophistication

There is no evidence of the bloomery in China after the appearance of the blast furnace and cast iron. In China, blast furnaces produced cast iron, which was then either converted into finished implements in a cupola furnace, or turned into wrought iron in a fining hearth. If iron ores are heated with carbon to ' K, a molten liquid is formed, an alloy of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is strong, can be cast into intricate shapes, but is too brittle to be worked, unless the product is decarburized to remove most of the carbon. The vast majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the late Zhou dynasty onward, was of cast iron.[35] However forged swords began to be made in the Warring-States-period: "Earliest iron and steel Jian also appear, made by the earliest and most basic forging and folding techniques."[36] Iron would become, by around 300 BCE, the preferred metal for tools and weapons in China.[37]

The primary advantage of the early blast furnace was in large scale production and making iron implements more readily available to peasants. Cast iron is more brittle than wrought iron or steel, which required additional fining and then cementation or co-fusion to produce, but for menial activities such as farming it sufficed. By using the blast furnace, it was possible to produce larger quantities of tools such as ploughshares more efficiently than the bloomery. In areas where quality was important, such as warfare, wrought iron and steel were preferred. Nearly all Han period weapons are made of wrought iron or steel, with the exception of axe-heads, of which many are made of cast iron.

The effectiveness of the Chinese human and horse powered blast furnaces was enhanced during this period by the engineer Du Shi (c. AD 31), who applied the power of waterwheels to piston-bellows in forging cast iron.[40] Early water-driven reciprocators for operating blast furnaces were built according to the structure of horse powered reciprocators that already existed. That is, the circular motion of the wheel, be it horse driven or water driven, was transferred by the combination of a belt drive, a crank-and-connecting-rod, other connecting rods, and various shafts, into the reciprocal motion necessary to operate a push bellow.[41][42]

Donald Wagner suggests that early blast furnace and cast iron production evolved from furnaces used to melt bronze. Certainly, though, iron was essential to military success by the time the State of Qin had unified China (221 BC). Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the Song and Tang dynasties.[43] By the 11th century, the Song dynasty Chinese iron industry made a switch of resources from charcoal to coke in casting iron and steel, sparing thousands of acres of woodland from felling. This may have happened as early as the 4th century AD.[44][45]

Blast furnaces were also later used to produce gunpowder weapons such as cast iron bomb shells and cast iron cannons during the Song dynasty.

Middle Ages

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Shen Kuo's written work of contains, among other early descriptions of inventions, a method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast similar to the modern Bessemer process.[47][48][49][50][51][52][53]

Chinese metallurgy was widely practiced during the Middle Ages; during the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vast deforestation due to the use of charcoal in the smelting process.[54][55] To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce coke from bituminous coal as a substitute for charcoal.[54][55] Although hydraulic-powered bellows for heating the blast furnace had been written about since Du Shi's (d. 38) invention of them in the 1st century CE, the first known illustration of a bellows in operation is found in a book written in by Wang Zhen (fl. ').[56]

Gold and silver

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Geographical distribution of early gold and silver artefacts found in Northwest China and Central Asia (8th'3rd century BCE).

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Gold-crafting technology developed in Northwest China during the early Iron Age, following the arrival of new technological skills from the Central Asian steppes, even before the establishment of the Xiongnu (209 BCE-150 CE).[57] These technological and artistic exchanges attest to the magnitude of communication networks between China and the Mediterranean, even before the establishment of the Silk Road.[57] The sites of Dongtalede (Ch: '''', 9th'7th century BCE) in Xinjiang, or Xigoupan (Ch:''', 4th'3rd century BCE) in the Ordos region of Inner Mongolia, are known for numerous artifacts reminiscent of the Scytho-Siberian art of Central Asia.[57]

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During the Qing dynasty the gold and silver smiths of Ningbo were noted for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work.[58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

• Gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards found in Dongtalede , Northwest China

• Silver horse harness ornament, Xigoupan M2 (4th'3rd c. BCE)

• Gold belt buckle inscribed with Chinese characters found in Xigoupan M2 (4th-3rd century BCE)

• Gold plaque with standing eagle from Xigoupan M2 (4th'3rd c. BCE)

Cultural significance

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Chinese mythology generally reflects a time when metallurgy had long been practiced. According to the Romanian anthropologist, orientalist, and philosopher Mircea Eliade, the Iron Age produced a large number of rites, myths and symbols; the blacksmith was the main agent of diffusion of mythology, rites and metallurgical mysteries.[65] The secret knowledge of metallurgists and their powers made them founders of the human world and masters of the spirit world.[66] This metallurgical model was reinterpreted again by Taoist alchemists.

Some metalworkers illustrate the close relationship between Chinese mystical and sovereign power and the mining and metallurgy industries. Although the name Huangdi is absent from Shang or Zhou inscriptions, it appears in the Spring and Autumn period's Guoyu and Zuo zhuan. According to Mitarai (), Huangdi may have lived in early antiquity and led a regional ethnic group who worshiped him as a deity;[full citation needed] "The Yellow Emperor fought Chiyou at Mount Kunwu whose summit was covered with a large quantity of red copper".[67]

"The seventy-two brothers of Chiyou had copper heads and iron fronts; they ate iron and stones [...] In the province of Ji where Chiyou is believed to have lived (Chiyou shen), when we dig the earth and we find skulls that seem to be made of copper and iron, they are identified as the bones of Chiyou."[68] Chiyou was the leader of the indigenous Sanmiao (or Jiuli) tribes who defeated Xuanyuan, the future Yellow Emperor. Chiyou, a rival of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to a clan of blacksmiths. The advancement of weaponry is sometimes attributed to the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou, and Chiyou reportedly discovered the process of casting. Kunwu is associated with a people, a royal blacksmith, a mountain which produces metals, and a sword.[69] Kui, a master of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by Yu the Great. Yu the Great, reported founder of the Xia dynasty (China's first), spent many years working on flood control and is credited with casting the Nine Tripod Cauldrons. Helped by dragons descended from heaven, he died on Mount Xianglu in Zhejiang.[70] In these myths and legends, mines and forges are associated with leadership.[71]

See also

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References

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Citations

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Sources

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Public domain

• This article incorporates text from appleton's new practical cyclopedia, a publication from , now in the public domain in the United States.
• This article incorporates text from Appleton's new practical cyclopedia: a new work of reference based upon the best authorities, and systematically arranged for use in home and school, by Marcus Benjamin, Arthur Elmore Bostwick, Gerald Van Casteel, George Jotham Hagar, a publication from , now in the public domain in the United States.
• This article incorporates text from The universal cyclopaedia, a publication from , now in the public domain in the United States.
• This article incorporates text from Universal cyclopædia and atlas, Volume 8, by Charles Kendall Adams, Rossiter Johnson, a publication from , now in the public domain in the United States.
• This article incorporates text from Johnson's universal cyclopedia: a new edition, by A.J. Johnson Company, a publication from , now in the public domain in the United States.
• This article incorporates text from Johnson's universal cyclopaedia, Volume 6, by Charles Kendall Adams, a publication from , now in the public domain in the United States.
• This article incorporates text from Universal cyclopaedia and atlas, Volume 8, by Charles Kendall Adams, Rossiter Johnson, a publication from , now in the public domain in the United States.

Copper is a workhorse metal in the global economy given its high ductility, conductivity, and corrosion-resistant properties. Today, clean energy initiatives are catalysts that could lead to higher secular demand. Another major demand factor is the possibility of a quicker-than-expected economic recovery in China, driven by the recovery in its influential property sector. Demand is only one side of the story, though, as production disruptions in key South and Central American regions add to concerns that the copper market may be heading into a deficit. In this piece, we discuss these factors and more, including how investors may want to consider exposure to copper.

Key Takeaways

• The recovery of China's property market is a critical component of the trajectory for global copper demand. In our view, the Chinese government's latest rescue package can lead to a robust rebound in China's building and construction.
• Supply and inventory risks are a consideration with copper being a core material building block for renewable power grid and electric vehicle (EV) infrastructure.
• We believe copper presents compelling investment opportunities, including through leveraged plays like copper miners.

China's Property Market Recovery to Support Copper Demand

China is the biggest consumer in the world, using more than half of the world's supply.1 At the center of China's consumption is its building and construction sector, which accounts for about 30% of total copper end use.2 How China's property sector bounces back from COVID-induced slowdowns is a key factor in the trajectory for copper demand. The massive property sector rescue package that the government unveiled in November should help.3 This rescue package is more pragmatic and comprehensive than earlier measures, signaling the central government's determination to support developer financing and manage the spillover risks.

As part of the package, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission (CBIRC) outlined 16 steps to aid the property sector. Among them, the CBIRC lifted a ban on equity refinancing for property developers, allowing listed builders to sell local shares for debt payments and acquisitions. To finish housing projects, construct affordable housing, refill working capital, and pay off debt, listed developers in China will be permitted to begin private placements.4 Also, the property sector received new loan lines totaling $162 billion from China's leading banks, proving a significant, synchronized infusion of liquidity into the Chinese real estate market.5

The Government Work Report (GWR), an annual report that details the government's economic development plans for the year, largely restated the vows made at the government's Central Economic Work Conference (CEWC) in December . The government remains committed to improving property developers' balance sheets and ensuring home supply. The GWR did remove the statement that 'housing is for living, not for speculation.' 6 Instead, the government now encourages the steady growth of the property market, signaling a change from curbing speculation to boosting demand. In keeping with CEWC, the government stressed supporting basic and upgrading housing demand by rolling out financial support.7

Helped by government stimulus, China's home prices steadied in January to end a 16-month decline 8 and gained momentum in February 9. Should home prices continue to stabilize and boost buyers' confidence, it could be viewed as an early sign that property sales may start to improve.

More broadly, China reported that its manufacturing sector is recovering rapidly. According to February Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI) data, China's manufacturing sector expanded at its quickest rate since April , potentially paving the way for higher output and increased economic activity. Moreover, China's March NBS PMI survey showed service and construction activities driving the post-Covid recovery.11

Production Interruptions Raise Concerns About Copper Supply

Copper supply might increase in due to project ramp-ups 12, but supply disruption risks are a consideration, particularly in key Central and South American production regions. Chile and Peru alone provide almost 40% of the global copper supply.13 Recent disruptions in the region include the Las Bambas copper mine in Peru, where production was partially cut after road blockades in February prevented the delivery of raw materials14. In late February , First Quantum stopped processing ore at its Panama mine due to mine tax and royalty disputes.15

Disruptions like these increase the risk of a copper shortfall in the coming years, which can put pressure on prices. Other potential stumbling blocks to the rapid expansion of capacity include land acquisition and grid connection risks. Water scarcity in arid locations is another risk, as copper extraction typically requires significant water use. Already, in December , commodity trading and mining company Glencore forecasted a 50 mt supply shortage by .16.

Low copper inventories in the United States and Europe exacerbate the production disruptions in South and Central America, adding to the perception that the copper market may be approaching a deficit. If Chinese demand keeps rising as it did in February, Goldman Sachs expects the world to run out of visible copper inventory by the third quarter, this year.17 Low inventories increase the possibility of a price surge in the event of significant drawdowns and a subsequent rush by traders to replenish their stock.

Despite a recent increase, inventories remain very low in the London Metal Exchange (LME) and Commodity New York Mercantile Exchange (COMEX)18. However, inventories grew in the Shanghai Futures Exchange (SHFE) following Lunar New Year, which is a seasonal occurrence linked to the holiday. If inventories were to fall earlier or more quickly than expected, it could confirm expectations of a strong rebound in Chinese demand. SHFE falling inventory levels from the last week of February confirmed a rebound back.19

Demand for Clean Energy Can Trigger a Copper Super Cycle

Copper's useful characteristics imply that its demand is closely linked to economic cycles, industrialization, and now the energy transition. In the near term, we expect copper prices to find support from global catalysts such as the Federal Reserve's (Fed) eventual pause of its hiking cycle, a weaker U.S. dollar and China's reopening. In the medium term, energy transition-related demand and lagging supply investment might mainly drive copper prices.

Many governments are investing to develop renewable energy including solar power and to increase electric vehicles (EV) adoption, notably the United States and Europe.20 As a result, these two economies are becoming key drivers of the surge in copper demand. For example, the Biden administration recently granted $2.8 billion for EV battery manufacturing.21 The Inflation Reduction Act of provides credits to buy EVs, and if all goes according to plan, 50% of all new cars sold in the United States could be some type of EV .22 Europe increased its demand for copper as part of its accelerated shift to renewables to wean off Russian gas.23

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), annual copper demand globally is expected to double by .24 Copper is one of the minerals that will be indispensable to the energy transition. Its conductive qualities make copper a key component of low-emissions power production technologies like solar photovoltaic (PV) panels, wind turbines, and batteries, in addition to its widespread use in the energy transmission and distribution grids.25

Multiple Ways to Invest in Copper, Including Leveraged Plays via Miners

Investors can gain exposure to copper through physical copper, futures, and mining stocks. Physical copper bullion can be bought directly from precious metal dealers, who sell it at spot market prices. The advantage of physical ownership is that its value closely tracks the price movements of the broader copper market. Also, owners have direct access to their investment. One downside is that dealers can charge premiums to buy and sell copper, which can dramatically reduce returns. In addition, storage costs must be taken into account.

Paper trading of copper is conducted through the futures market. Paper trading provides investors with exposure to copper without needing to physically hold the metal, potentially improving liquidity and reducing the cost of ownership. Unlike the bullion market, futures markets can also allow investors to use leverage. One downside of futures is contango, which occurs when future prices of a commodity are higher than its spot price. Contango can erode gains over time, even if the spot price of copper rises. For example, the Copper forward curve has been recently rather smile-shaped, including phases of contango, such as from June to November .26

Copper mining stocks offer indirect exposure to copper prices. These stocks tend to be leveraged plays on copper prices due to the fixed costs of extracting the metal. Historically, copper miners outperform bullion in bullish markets because of how these companies use their operating leverage to increase profits, which can boost share prices. Unlike investing directly in copper, miners can expand production as profit margins grow. A potential drawback for investors is exposure to idiosyncratic risks associated with owning a particular company's stock. To counteract this risk, investors may look to an ETF, which owns a broad basket of companies involved in copper mining.

This high inflation environment makes for difficult operating conditions, causing some analysts to be pessimistic about the mining industry's capacity to exceed the commodity price. Due to largely fixed expenses in the mining business, companies' profits depend on both cost curves and the copper price. Currently, copper is trading over cash cost support compared to other base metals.

Conclusion: Demand Catalysts Materializing into Opportunities

Copper may not have the shine of a precious metal, but the world puts it to work in myriad ways due to its unique characteristics. Tight supply, a bullish long-term story linked to the energy transition, and the potential for an economic boom as China reopens create a compelling investment case for copper, in our view. Despite high volatility and risks linked to an expected global slowdown, we believe copper is still supported in the near term while a Supercycle is envisioned over the decade.

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